Making of Buddhist Monk

MAKING OF A MONK IN THERAVADA BUDDHISM: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PALI CHANTING TRADITION IN SOUTH EAST ASIA.



Dr Gautam Chatterjee &
Ms Arpita Sen


Introduction


Textual Tradition and Norms of Monkhood – A Historical Perspective

The norms and codes about way of life of monks were evolved in passage of time right from the times of Buddha himself. Let us try to fathom the traverse of several doctrines which provided the foundation of code of conduct for Sangha and Monks.

Tripitaka (Sanskrit) or Tipitaka (Pali) is the canonical text of the Theravada Buddhist tradition. Many different versions of the canon exist through out the Buddhist world containing enormous variety of texts. The oldest and most widely known version is the Pali Tipitaka. The doctrine of Tipitaka writings which were originally listened, memorized and recited orally by the disciple monks are classified in three baskets (tri-pitaka).

i) Vinaya Pitaka – The Basket of Discipline or the Code of Ethics to be obeyed by monks and nuns. It was recited by Bhadanta Upati.

ii) Sutta Pitaka – The Basket of Threads or the Basket of Discourses recited by Bhadanta Ananda. It consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha’s teachings. There are numerous sub-divisions of this Pitaka, viz., Digha Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya, Anguttara Nikaya and Khuddaka Nikaya. The Sutta Pitaka contains more than 10,000 Suttas.

iii) Abhidhamma Pitaka – the Basket of Higher knowledge or Special Teachings which was recited by Bhadanta Maha Kassapa. It consists of seven books. The Abhidhamma Pitaka is a collection of miscellaneous writings including songs, poetry and stories of the Buddha and his past lives. Its primary subjects are Buddhist philosophy and psychology.
SANGITI; A Short Historical Overview

The First Council (Sangiti) was held in Rajagriha within three months from the Mahaparinibbina of the Buddha (544 B.C.) by some of his disciples who had attained Arahantship (enlightenment). Bhadanta Mahakassapa chaired the council, where Bhadanta Upati recited the Vinaya, i.e. the monastic rules for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis which is known as ‘Vinaya Pitaka’ in later period and Bhadanta Ananda recited the Dhamma (doctrine) which is known as “Sutta Pitaka”.

A century later, the second council, which was held at Vaisali under the chairmanship of Bhadanta Revata, discussed the difference of opinions on the interpretation of Vinaya rules.

By the patronage of Emperor Asoka (3rd cent. B.C.) the Third Council was convened in Pataliputra under the chairmanship of the Moggaliputta Tissa. There were 18 sects already divided Buddhist Sangha and all had different views on Vinaya rules. Moggaliputta Tissa, finally upheld the orthodox view of Staviravada by refuting all their heretic standpoints.

Till the 1st century B.C. the Buddhist teachings were all oral. During the rule of king Vattagamani Abhaya of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the Fourth Council was convened under the chairmanship of Mahathera Rakkhita. Five hundred monks recited the canons and all the three Pitakas were then written down.

It is interesting to note that though the Pitakas had been recorded in writing, the oral tradition had been carried through the samaneras and bhikkhus being trained in memorizing and reciting Pitaka texts in the Viharas or monasteries.

Beyond Vinaya Pitaka there are Sutta Vibhanga, which are sub divided into Mahavibhanga or Bhikhuvibhanga. These are textual traditions of Khandhas consisting of Mahavagga and Cullavagga.

Furthermore, there are Suttavibhanga means the explanation or expositions of the Suttas. The first Vibhanga, known as the Bhikkhuvibhanga contains the oldest of the rules which are grouped under the “Patimokkha’. The Glossary of Patimokkha is called “Parivara”. These are broad categories of textual tradition dealing with life of monks which will now be taken up as a precursor.

Patimokkha - Norms of Binding for the purpose of MOKSHA.

Patimokkha is one of the oldest of all Buddhist text books. It is the nucleus of the Vinaya Pitaka. The word “Palimokkha” is derived from the word ‘moksa’ meaning freedom with the prefix ‘prati’ which reverses its meaning when joined to it. ‘Pratimoksa’, an adjective, meaning ‘opposed to freedom’, ‘bound down’, when changed to a noun becomes pratimoksa which in Pali forms ‘Patimokkha, meaning ‘binding upon’.

According to Prof. Winternit, “The life of the monk was regulated by this code of rules, which formed the bond holding the community together”. He mentions Patimokkha as ‘that which is to be redeemed’. Other etymologies are: disburdening, getting free, unburdening, spiritual cuirass.

The Patimokkha has several versions in Pali, Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese. The Pali version i.e. the oldest and the shortest. According to the Pali tradition, it contains only 152 rules, which, however, extended to 227 later on.



The Bhikkhu Patimokkha consists of eight sections, viz.,

i) Parajika – four deadly sins
ii) Sanjhadisesa – thirteen faults involving temporary separation from the priesthood
iii) Aniyata dhamma – two undetermined offences
iv) Nissaggiya Pacittiya dhamma – thirty faults requiring concession and absolution and involving forfeiture of the article in reference to which the offence has been committed.
v) Pacittiya dhamma – ninety two faults requiring confession and absolution.
vi) Patidesaniya dhamma – four offences requiring confession
vii) Sekhiya dhamma – seventy two rules of conduct
viii) Adhikarana-Samatha – seven rules for setting cases
The Bhikkhu Patimokkha is a manual of 227 disciplinary rules compiled for the guidance of monks

The Bhikkhuni Patimokkha consists of seven section containing 311 offences. The “Aniyata” (or undetermined offence) does not exist in the Bhikkhuni Patimokkha. From the legal point of view, Parajika is the gravest offence and Sakhiya the lightest one.

We come to know from the Introduction (Nidana) to the Patimokkha that on the fifteenth day of the half month, the members of the Sangha assembled after performing the Uposatha ceremony and recital of the Patimokkha was the must. According to the texts, each and every set of rules was recited before the bhikkhus and immediately after the recitation, each and every one of them is thrice asked whether he is guilty of any of these rules. If any bhikkhu is guilty, he should confess it before the assembly. He should remain silent if he has not done any guilt.

The scholars say that at the beginning when the rules were in process, there had not been any readymade sections. But from time to time, the formulations were needed according to the offences coming into existence.

The Mahavibhariga and the Bhikkhunivibhariga are also known as the Parajika and Pacittiya respectively.

Khandhakas – Treatises Prescribed for Monks

As we have already seen, Vinaya Pitaka is placed at the head of Pali Canons. Yet in the sub divided text (Sutta Vibhanga) in Khandhakas or Treatises has two classified sub divisions namely, Mahavagga and Cullavagga that supplements Patimokkha rules and norms

The Mahavagga lays down rules for admission into the Sangha, the observance of the Uposatha ceremony and the patimokkha, the place of residence during the rainy season, the observance of the Pavarana ceremony (end of rainy season), foot clothing seats, conveyances, dress etc. Certain medicines for certain diseases are also specified in this text.

The Cullavagga is the smaller division. A number of edifying anecdotes connected with the life of the Buddha and history or constitution of the Order are found here. The Cullavagga contains 12 Khandhas or chapters. The first nine chapters deal with disciplinary proceedings, different offences and expiations, settlement of disputes among the fraternity, the daily life of the Bhikkhus with one another and the exclusion from the Patimokkha ceremony. The tenth chapter describes the duties of the nuns. The last two chapters are regarded as later supplements as they deal with an account of Rajagriha and Vesali Councils.

Parivara – Glossary to Patimokkha

The Parivara is a much later textual supplement and a glossary to the Patimokkha. It is a manual of instructions within the framework of Vinaya Pitaka. The Parivara consists of nineteen chapters.

Durga N.Bhagvat analyzed the offences described in Vinaya Pitaka “on modern lines without damaging principle of the Vinaya”.

i) Offences against person:
a) Sexual offences, b) murder and assault, c) defamation and slander
ii) Offences against property:
a) Theft, b) damage
iii) Offences against the Sangha:
a) Disputes, b) Schism, c) Refuting legal authority
iv) Offences against religion:
a)Talking lightly of the Buddha and the Sangha

I. THE FORMATION OF THE SANGHA

After his enlightenment the Buddha spent first week in meditation under the Bodhi tree and other six weeks in meditation at six different places around the tree.

At the end of his seventh week of meditation under Rajayatana tree, two merchants from Burma namely, Tapassu and Bhallika offered rice cake and honey to the Buddha and took refuge of the Buddha and his Dhamma. They were the first lay devotees in the Buddhist world.

The Doctrine was preached thereafter to the Paner Vaggiya bhikkhus, the group of five. They were: Kondanna, Vappa, Bhaddiya, Mahanama and Assaji.

Then after, Yasa, the son of a rich banker of Varanasi was converted by the Buddha after the Panca Vaggiya bhikkhus. The parents of Yasa became the lay disciples of the Buddha. The four chief friends of Yasa and fifty friends from the districts received initiation and ordination from the Buddha.

The newly converted disciples were asked by the Buddha to go forth to different lands for the welfare, happiness, and benefit of the mankind through teaching and preaching the new doctrine.

At the end of the Vassa (In Sanskrit Varsa) Vasa (Rain Retreat), the enlightened one proceeded to Uruveta for the conversion of Jatilas. There he stayed about two months, performed a series of miracles and converted three Kassapa brothers (Uruveta Kassapa, Nadi Kassapa and Gaya Kassapa) with their disciples. With these disciples numbering over one thousand the Buddha formed his first Sangha.

Bimbisara, the king of Rajagriha became a lay devotee of the Buddha taking refuge in tiratana (three jewels) – the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. The Veluvana Arama, dedicated by the king of the Sangha was the first Buddhist Vihara.

III MAKING OF A MONK (BHIKKHU)


Traditionally boys as young as seven are allowed to enter the Order. The tradition follows the story of Rahula, the Buddha’s son who was allowed to become a novice or “Samanera” at the age of seven.

The first admission to the Order is called ‘pabbajja’ which means ‘leaving the world’, and the candidates ordained is called as ‘samanera’ or novice. Samaneras shave their heads, wear the yellow robes and observe ten basic precepts (Dasa sikkhapadani). Those are:

· Abstaining from killing
· Abstaining from stealing
· Abstaining from sexual misconduct
· Abstaining from false speech
· Abstaining from intoxicants
· Abstaining from afternoon meals
· Abstaining from visiting places of amusement
· Abstaining from perfumes and garlands
· Abstaining from sleeping in high and spacious beds
· Abstaining from handling gold, silver and monetary transactions
The consent of the parents or guardians of the novice is must before conferring the “Pabbajja” on him. The novice is trained under the teacher (Acariya) till he finds the trainee suitable for higher ordination or “upasampada”.

In most Theravada countries, it is a common practice for young men to ordain as monks for a fixed period of time. In Thailand and Myanmar, young men ordain for the three month Rain Retreat (Varsa vasa). Traditionally, temporary ordination is more flexible among Laotians.

Most of the south-east Asian countries celebrate the ‘pabbajja’ ceremony in a grand way. The higher ordination or the formal entrance of Abhikkhu in the Sangha is called as ‘Upasampada’. The minimum age for Upasampada is twenty years.



Whereas the ‘pabbajja’ can take place in any temple or Vihara, the place for ‘Upasampada’ is a specific one and it is known as ‘sima’. A ‘sima’ can be the temple premises or a tank or river. Minimum ten monks should be present for the ceremony. Before it takes place, monks purify the place by performing rituals and chanting the suttas. This performance is named after “Bhikkhu Karmavaca”

The newly ordained monk might now being trained under Upajjhaya, who was competent to train disciples. In the absence of Upajjhaya, the Acariya was the higher teacher.

The distinction of upasampada and Pabbajja came later on in the Sangha. The award of pabbajja or mere initiation remained in the hands of individual teachers and the conferment of upasampada was vested in the assembly.

It is noteworthy that different rules were introduced from time to time in the Sangha that who should be permanently excluded from the Order and who were not allowed for Upasampada. Those physically unfit persons are debarred from joining the Order. Mahavagga elaborates with thirty classifications.


Bhikhunis – A Perspective from History

The Buddha allowed the entry of the women to the Sangha after great reluctance. This admission was granted on condition of acceptance of the Eight Chief Rules or “Atthagarudhamma”. They are as follows:

i) A bhikkhuni even if she is more experienced, aged, intelligent and learned, shall pay respects to a new bhikkhu
ii) A bhikkhuni has to depend upon Bhikkhus in all respects. She must not spend even a rainy season in a monastery where there is no resident monk.
iii) Every half month a bhikkhuni must ask the bhikkhu sangha the date of the Uposatha ceremony, and the time when the bhikkhu will come to give the exhortation.
iv) A bhikkuni is to hold Pavarana before both the bhikkhu and the bhikkhunisanghas in respect of what she has seen, heard or thought of.
v) A bhikkhuni is to undergo the manatta discipline towards both the Sanghas if any serious offence is committed.
vi) A bhikkhuni shall ask for upasampada from both the Sanghas after she has learnt six precepts for two years.
vii) A bhikkhuni must not abuse or speak ill of any bhikkhu.
viii) A bhikkhuni must not talk with a bhikkhu but a bhikkhu can give instructions to a bhikkhuni.
The Bhikkhuni Sangha was established more or less five years later than the Bhikkhu Sangha. The scholars say that the laws for the bhikkhunis were perhaps formulated in the first three years of its establishment, when the Sangha became more popular and crowded. At that time, need of creating new laws was most urgent and so, the laws came into existence as it happened to the Bhikkhu Sangha.

The laws for the bhikkhunis are found in a very small portion of the Vinaya Pitaka. The Bhikkunivibhanga, the tenth chapter of the Cullavagga and some portion of the Parivara are exclusively devoted to the subject.

The Bhikkhuni Patimokkha consists of seven sections containing 311 offences. There is no section corresponding to “Aniyata” of the Bhikkhu Patimokkha.

Bhikkus Viharas – Educational Institutes for the Monks

Buddhist viharas were the centres of training for the monks as well as for the laity. Apart from the philanthropic service, the viharas provided teaching service to its own members and also for the laymen. Thus, a vihara became a residential university for the monastic members and a day school for the lay persons.

The various branches of knowledge were taught in the viharas by the Upajjhayas and Acariyas to their respective disciples.

Cullavagga gives a list of subjects that were taught in the viharas. Para vidya which relates to the knowledge of spiritual matters leading to the realization of ‘Nibbana’ was the main subject for learning. Apara vidya or Tiracchana vijja or the knowledge relating to worldly matters was mainly imparted to the laymen.

The Anguttara Nikaya gives us a list of prominent Buddhist personalities among the bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, upasakas, upasikas who were the master in certain subjects or qualities. They were even conferred the title “agga” by the Buddha. The list shows the vast knowledge of various subjects by the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.

Moreover, the teachers Upajjhayas and Acharyas dealt with special subjects for the Bhikkus who wants to specialize. According to Gokulda De “the teachers of allied subjects had their seats arranged in close proximity to one another and those teaching subjects different in character had their seats placed in different apartments”.

About the area of study the textual tradition of Tirachanakatha throws light about the topics. These were:

1) Tales of Kings
2) Tales of robbers
3) Tales of Ministers
4) Tales of war
5) Tales of battles
6) Tales of food, drink and clothes
7) Tales of relations and acquaintances
8) Tales of villages and towns
9) Tales of women
10) Tales of heroes
11) Contemplation about the creation of the land area
12) Discussions about the existence on non-existence of the self etc.
Following are few names of the monks given in Etadaggavagga of Ekanipata of Anguttara Nikaya:

i) Annakondanna – The head of those who were renowned for their experience i.e. general knowledge
ii) Sariputta – The head of those who were vastly learned, i.e. specialised knowledge.
iii) Mahamoggallana – the head of those possessing magical powers, i.e. knowledge of supernatural power.
iv) Anuruddha – The head of those having supernatural vision, i.e. knowledge of future.
v) Mahakaccayana – The head of those who could expound short sayings into long essays, i.e. art of developing suttas into suttantas.
vi) Upati – The head of those who knew the Vinaya
vii) Ananda – The head of those who knew the suttas
viii) Kumara Kassapa – The head of those who could beautifully narrate stories.

Society and Monkhood

The Mahavagga gives an account of constitution of early Buddhist Sangha. Prof. Gokuldas De writes that this constitution was a system of government formed by the bhikkhus, for the bhikkhus and of the bhikkhus and it may be rightly designated as “Democracy” of the Bhikkhu Sangha. Prof. De has analyzed the constitution as following:

Firstly, this democracy was based upon the bhikkhus who were over 20 years of age and had a certain standard of education and training taken from the teachers.

Secondly, the assembly where the business of the Sangha was to be conducted “must not be a part but complete by including all the monastic members of a specific area.

Thirdly, the laymen who were not a part of the said assembly should be reconciled the mode of administration of the Sangha. It was allowed that the bhikkhus should come directly under the supervision and care of lay devotees in a certain part of the year.

Thus the Sangha acted as

i) A centre of learning and discipline
ii) A self-dependent administrative body
iii) A co-operating link with the society at large.







Ritualistic Ceremonies in the life of Monks

Uposatha -


Uposatha was a very ancient observance which laymen kept to restrain the senses and acquired the merit. It was a pre-Buddhist ceremony which the Buddha introduced into the Sangha later on. The ceremony was observed generally on the 8th, 14th or 15th day of a bright or a dark fortnight in the prevailing custom, but in the Buddhist Sangha it was to be held only once in a fortnight either on 14th or 15th day. On this day of fasting, a bhikhu recited the rules of the Patimokkha and confessed if he had done any wrong. The Uposatha thus became very significant ceremony in the Buddhist world.

Varsa Vasa and Pavarana

The Vasa Vasa and Pavarana are two ceremonies where the laity shows its love and esteem to the Buddhist Order.

The days of rain-retreat or Vassa Vasa begin with the full moon day of Asadha and end with the full moon day of Kattika. The vassa vasa terminate with the Pavarana. Both of these ceremonies prevailed in pre-Buddhistic tradition and had been introduced into the Order later on.

The difficulties which arose in travelling on foot during the rain were an important factor in giving introduction to the Sangha. The rules of vasa vasa, as we find from the texts, prove that the bhikkhus were expected to keep themselves in close touch with the laity during the period. It is noteworthy to mention the following places forbidden for residence of vasa vasa:

i) The hollow of a tree
ii) A forest
iii) Open Air
iv) A place not meant for rest
v) A house where dead bodies were kept
vi) An umbrella
vii) A big earthen vessel
Cultivation of good thoughts in meditation among people who are full of worries and also to live without trouble amidst of those afflicted with troubles might be the underlying idea of the introduction of vassa vasa into the Order.

The ceremony of Pavarana had to be conducted in the evening for the convenience of laymen to attend it. The uposatha ceremony held in the morning of the same day. The Pavarana was a rejuvenation of life and development for the bhikkhus after three months of confinement and rest. It is supported by the encouragement they receive from the laity on this occasion. The cooperation with the laity was a distinctive feature of Pavarana.